Engineering Dictionary

A2/Ae2 ^emperature Temperature of magnetic transformation in ferrite (~770°C). See Curie temperature.
A3/Ae3 ^emperature In Fe-Fe3C phase diagram, a temperature of the polymorphic transformation y <-> a corresponding to the GS line in the diagram. Critical points on cooling and heating are known as Ar3 (Ar3 < A3) and Ac3 (Ac3 >A3), respectively. For details, see A1 temperature.
A4/Ae4 temperature In Fe-Fe3C phase diagram, a temperature of the polymorphic transformation 8-ferrite <-> austenite.
Acm/Aecm femPerature In Fe-Fe3C phase diagram, a temperature corresponding to the equilibrium austenite <-> cementite; it is shown by the ES line in the diagram.
aberration Defect observed in optical and electron microscopes. It reveals itself in a colored (in optical microscopy) or slightly eroded or distorted image. The main types of aberration are: chromatic, spherical, distortion, astigmatism, and coma.
abnormal grain growth (AG) Grain growth wherein the mean grain size changes slowly at first, then, after a certain incubation period, increases abruptly, almost linearly, with time. Only a minority of the grains (~10–5) grow in the course of abnormal grain growth. These grains can reach the size of several mm, whereas the matrix grains retain its initial size of several |im until it is consumed. The reason why the small grains cannot grow or grow slowly is retardation of their boundary migration by various drag forces as, e.g., by grain-boundary solute segregation (also known as impurity drag), by small precipitates (see particle drag), or by thermal grooves in thin films and strips (see groove drag). The matrix can also be stabilized by low mobility of the majority of grain boundaries, characteristic of materials with a strong single-component texture. The grains growing in the course of AG differ from the matrix grains by an increased capillary driving force owing to their increased initial size (see normal grain growth). Sometimes, their growth can be supported by a surface-energy driving force or by a driving force owing to decreased dislocation density (see strain-induced grain boundary migration). Time dependence of the volume fraction of abnormally large grains is similar to that of primary recrystallized grains; owing to this, AG is often referred to as secondary recrystallization. In some cases, AG is quite helpful, as, e.g., in electrical steels, where it leads to the Goss texture formation and to a significant improvement in magnetic properties. In other cases, it is detrimental, as, e.g., in crystalline ceramics (see solid-state sintering). AG is also termed discontinuous or exaggerated grain growth.
abnormal pearlite In hypereutectoid steels, a microstructure formed by pearlite colonies separated by extended ferrite fields from the network of pro-eutectoid cementite.

absorption Phenomenon of taking up atoms or energy from the environment into a body. A reduction in the intensity of certain radiation passing through a substance is described by an absorption coefficient.
absorption coefficient Quantity describing a reduction of the integrated intensity of some radiation passed through a homogeneous substance. See linear absorption coefficient and mass absorption coefficient.
absorption contrast Image contrast associated with different x-ray (electron) absorption in the sample areas having different thicknesses or densities. It is also known as amplitude contrast.
absorption edge See x-ray absorption spectrum.
absorption factor Quantity characterizing an angular dependence of the intensity of diffracted x-ray radiation, the dependence being a result of the x-ray absorption. The absorption factor can increase with the Bragg angle, as e.g., in the Debye-Scherrer method, or remain independent of it, as e.g., in the diffractometric method. Absorption factor is taken into account in x-ray structure analysis.
absorption spectrum Wavelength spectrum of an absorbed radiation.
acceptor Dopant in semiconductors increasing the concentration of charge carriers. The energy level of the acceptor valence electrons lies within the band gap close to its bottom. Owing to this, valence electrons from the filled valence band can be activated to the acceptor level, which, in turn, produces empty levels (known as holes) in the valence band, and thus promotes the electron conductivity. For instance, in elemental semiconductors (Si, Ge), acceptors can be substitutional solutes with a smaller valence than that of host atoms.
accommodation strain See coherency strain.
achromatic lens/objective In optical microscopes, a lens corrected for chromatic aberrations in two colors (usually red and green), as well as for spherical aberrations.
acicular Needle-shaped. The name has its origin in the fact that plate-like crystallites, as e.g., Widmannstätten ferrite or steel martensite, look like needles on plane sections studied by optical microscopy, PEEM, and SEM.
acicular ferrite Ferrite crystallite growing, apparently, as in the course of bai-nitic transformation. It has a lath-like shape and an increased dislocation density. The lathes form packets in which they are parallel to each other, and the boundaries between them inside a packet are low-angle. Several packets can occur within an austenite grain. Acicular ferrite is also termed Widmannstätten ferrite.
acicular martensite Crystallite of martensite in steels with a low Ms temperature of a lens- or needle-like shape in the cross-section. Martensite plates have a clearly visible longitudinal center line called midrib (i.e., middle ribbon). An increased density of transformation twins and dislocations is observed close to the midrib. The adjacent martensite plates of acicular martensite are non-parallel. The habit planes of acicular martensite are {259}A or {3 10 15}A, and its lattice is oriented with respect to the austenite lattice according to the Nishiyama and Greninger–Troiano orientation relation-

ships, respectively. Acicular martensite is also called lenticular or plate martensite.
Ac temperature In Fe–Fe3C alloys, a critical point observed on heating and denoted by Ac1, Ac3, or Accm, for A1, A3, or Acm, respectively. See superheating.
activation analysis Technique for chemical analysis wherein a sample is preliminary irradiated, and a secondary radiation of some component is used for determining its amount.
activation energy Additional free energy necessary for the commencement of some thermally activated reactions (e.g., diffusion, recrystallization, phase transformations, etc.). If activation energy is denoted by H, the Gibbs free energy is implied (in this case, activation energy can be referred to as activation enthalpy). If not, either the Gibbs or Helmholtz free energy may be meant. Units of activation energy are J/mol or eV/at.
activation enthalpy See activation energy.
active slip system Slip system over which the dislocation glide motion takes place.
adatom Atom from the environment adsorbed at the surface of an adsorbent.
adiabatic approximation The assumption that all processes in a system proceed without heat exchange with the environment.
adsorbate See adsorption.
adsorbent See adsorption.
adsorption Spontaneous attachment of atoms (or molecules) of some substance from the environment to the surface of some body, the substance being called adsorbate and the body adsorbent. Adsorption is accompanied by a decrease of surface energy. Adsorption results in the formation of an adsorption layer in which the adsorbate concentration is greater than in the environment. A layer of this kind can also form at some lattice defects, such as grain boundaries and interfaces, the environment and adsorbate being the bulk of the grains and solute atoms, respectively. In this case, adsorption is referred to as equilibrium segregation. See also physical adsorption and chemisorption.
after-effect Any alteration evolving after the completion of an external action.
age hardening An increase in hardness and strength caused by precipitation treatment resulting in precipitation of dispersed phase(s) from a supersaturated solid solution. It is frequently referred to as precipitation strengthening.
aging Decomposition of a supersaturated solid solution. The size and number of precipitates depends on the aging temperature and time and on the supersaturation, as well as on the solution substructure (see heterogeneous nucleation). Their arrangement is affected by the microstructure of the supersaturated solution and the previously mentioned aging conditions. For instance, if precipitates nucleate and grow inside the parent grains, Widmannstätten structure can appear. If they nucleate and grow predominately at the subboundaries and grain boundaries of the parent phase, the precipitates can form a network corresponding to the boundary

network of the parent phase. In addition, narrow precipitation-free zones near the grain boundaries can occur.
aging [in Ti alloys] Phase changes accompanying the decomposition of retained §-phase or metastable §-phase (Pm) that occurred on tempering. These changes are commonly referred to as aging, although both P and Pm are unsaturated with respect to the equilibrium P-phase at the aging temperature. In the course of aging, phases with a decreased solute concentration precipitate from the metastable P-phases. As a result, the latter become solute-rich and their composition tends to the equilibrium P-phase. Possible sequences of phase changes during aging in (a + P) alloys can be described as follows: Pm —> Pm + CO —> P + a or Pm —> P1 + P2 —> P + a. Here, P1 and P2 are metastable BCC phases differing in composition from Pm and from one another; they supposedly occur by spinodal decomposition of Pm. The microstructure after aging consists of two microcon-stituents: ^-matrix and relatively uniformly distributed, dispersed a-phase particles. See a-phase and aging treatment.
aging treatment Heat treatment aimed at age hardening; it comprises solution and precipitation treatments.
aging treatment of Ti alloys Heat treatment that comprises heating of quenched alloys with metastable a'-, a"-, and (d-phases and retained P-or metastable §-phase. As for a'-martensite, a."-martensite, and CO-phase, the treatment should be named tempering, whereas the term “aging treatment” should relate solely to the previously mentioned P-phases. See aging in Ti alloys and tempering of titanium martensite.
air-cooling Cooling in still air.
aliovalent solute/impurity Solute in ionic crystals whose valence differs from that of a host ion. Aliovalent solutes disturb the electrical neutrality and must be associated with other defects (either lattice defects or electrons) compensating their charge.
allotropic change Transformation of one allotropic form into another, the transformation evolving as a first-order transition. See also polymorphic transformation.
allotropic form/modification In a single-component solid, one of several stable phases differing from the others by crystal structure, and transforming one into another spontaneously at the corresponding temperature and pressure. There can be more than two allotropic forms. They are usually denoted by Greek letters in alphabetic order, starting with alpha for the lowest temperature form. See allotropy.
allotropy In a single-component solid, the existence of stable phases with different crystal structures in different temperature or pressure ranges. Allo -tropic transformation relates to first-order transitions. See also polymorphism.
alloy Metallic material consisting of a base metal and one or more alloying elements partially or completely dissolving in the base metal. Alloys are frequently denoted by symbols of their components, the symbol of the base metal being usually underlined, as, e.g., Cu-Zn alloy for brasses.

alloy carbide Intermediate phase in alloy steels consisting of carbon and alloying element(s). It is also termed special carbide.
alloying composition Auxiliary alloy used in the alloy production instead of pure alloying elements. It is also known as master alloy.
alloying element Component added deliberately with the aim of improving the properties of an alloy. Alloying elements can affect the existence range of equilibrium phases present in an unalloyed material, or lead to the occurrence of new phases, or both. In addition, alloying elements strongly affect the kinetics of phase transformations and thus the microstructure formation in alloyed materials. See also dopant.
alloy steel Steel comprising one or several alloying elements, along with carbon.
alloy system See system.
alpha brass Brass with only one phase constituent, that is, a Cu-based solid solution.
ambipolar diffusion Coupled migration of oppositely charged ions and lattice defects under the influence of an electric field, either external or internal. In the latter case, the oppositely charged species migrate together because their separate migration disturbs the electrical neutrality. Ambipolar diffusion may be observed in sintering and diffusional creep of ionic crystals. Compare with electromigration in metals.
amorphous solid Phase characterized only by a short-range order and by a missing long-range order in atomic structure. Amorphous phase can be obtained by quenching the melt below a glass transition temperature (see glassy phase), by ion bombardment, by heavy plastic deformation (e.g., by mechanical alloying), by rapid film deposition, etc.
amplitude contrast See absorption contrast.
analytical electron microscope (AEM) TEM used for chemical analysis of small areas (~10 nm in diameter), e.g., by means of EELA.
Andrade creep Transient creep described by the empirical time dependence of the creep strain, e, in tension tests:
e oc at1/3
(a is a constant and t is time). Andrade creep is observed at higher temperatures than logarithmic creep. anelasticity Deviation from the behavior according to Hooke ’s law that reveals itself in two constituents of elastic strain: an instantaneous one, occurring simultaneously with the application of an external force and corresponding to the Hooke law; and a time-dependent constituent, e(t), changing with time after the force application, t, at a constant temperature as follows:
e(t) = (o/E)[1–exp(– t /xR)]
where E is Young’s modulus, o is the tensile stress, and xR is the relaxation time. The relaxation time is constant at a fixed o and a constant temperature and is dependent on the nature of anelasticity. As seen in the equa -

tion, at various t, there may be different values of the elasticity modulus, its extremities being the Y oung’s modulus E corresponding to the Hooke’s law at t << τR and what is known as the relaxation modulus ER < E at t >> τR. See also internal friction.
anisotropic Having different physical and mechanical properties in various directions. Anisotropy of single crystals is a result of crystalline aniso-tropy, whereas that of a polycrystal is dependent on crystallographic texture (and so on the crystalline anisotropy) as well as on the microstru c-tural anisotropy as, e.g., banded structure or carbide stringers in steels or an elongated grain structure in heat-resistant alloys (see Nabarro-Herring or Coble creep). Anisotropy can be observed not only in crystalline solids but also in some liquids (see liquid crystals).
annealing/anneal Heat treatment resulting in the occurrence of equilibrium phases (see, e.g., graphitization anneal, solution annealing), in removing of deformation or amorphization effects or in attaining a required grain size or texture (see, e.g., recrystallization annealing), or in relieving chemical inhomogeneity and macroscopic residual stresses (see homogenizing, stress-relief annealing). In metallic alloys, annealing is a preliminary treatment preparing the microstructure or phase composition to a final treatment (see, e.g., austenitization and solution treatment). Annealing after amorphization of single-crystalline semiconductors can restore single-crystalline structure.
annealing texture Preferred orientation evolved in the course of primary recrys-tallization or grain growth. Recrystallization texture occurs because recrystallization nuclei are of nonrandom orientations and grow into the deformed matrix at different rates. It can be similar to deformation texture or quite different from it. Texture changes during grain growth are connected with different driving forces for growth of variously oriented grains and different mobility of their boundaries (see compromise texture). Grain growth commonly (but not always) results in weakening of the primary recrystallization texture. Annealing texture is usually characterized by an increased scatter and a decreased intensity in comparison to the initial deformation texture, except for a cube texture in some cold-rolled FCC alloys and the Goss texture in ferritic steels.
annealing twin Twi n occurring during primary recrystallization or grain growth. Annealing twins are usually observed in materials with low stacking-fault energy, especially on annealing after heavy plastic deformation. An annealing twin, depending on its position inside a grain, can have one or two coherent twin boundaries joining up with grain boundaries or incoherent twin boundaries. The twin with two coherent boundaries looks like a straight band.
anomalous x-ray transmission Abnormally low x-ray absorption observed in thick perfect crystals adjusted at the exact Bragg angle. It is also known as the Borrmann effect.
antiferromagnetic Material characterized (below Néel point) by a negative energy of exchange interaction and equal but oppositely directed magnetic

moments of different magnetic sublattices. The intrinsic magnetization in antiferromagnetics is lacking due to equality of the magnetic moments of the sublattices.
antiferromagnetic Curie point See Néel point.
antiphase boundary Boundary of antiphase domains within a grain of an ordered solid solution. Antiphase boundary is characterized by an increased energy because the arrangement of atoms of different components at the boundary is distorted in comparison to their arrangement inside domains (see Figure A.1).
Antiphase boundary
FIGURE A.1 Antiphase domains and an antiphase boundary inside a grain of an ordered solid solution. Open and solid circles represent atoms of different components.
antiphase domain Grain part having a crystal structure of an ordered solid solution. Identical sublattices in the adjacent antiphase domains inside one grain are shifted relative to each other (see Figure A.1), the shift being unequal to the translation vector of the corresponding superlattice. If the superlattice is of a noncubic system, identical sublattices of the adjacent antiphase domains inside a grain can have different spatial orientations.
antisite defect Lattice defect in ionic crystals produced by an ion of some sign occupying a site in the sublattice formed by ions of the opposite sign. Antisite defect is analogous to an antistructural atom in metallic crystals. See structural disorder.
antistructural atom See structural disorder.
aperture diaphragm In optical microscopes, a diaphragm that restricts the incident beam and affects the illumination intensity, image contrast, resolving power, and depth of focus.
apochromatic lens/objective In optical microscopes, a lens corrected for chromatic aberration in three color regions (violet, green, and red) and for spherical aberration in two color regions (violet and green). Apochro-matic objective has a better color correction than achromatic objective.
arrest point See critical point and thermal analysis.

Arrhenius equation Description of the temperature dependence of some kinetic parameter, A, of any thermally activated process:
A = A0 exp (–Q/cT)
Here, A0 is a pre-exponential factor, Q is the activation energy, T is the absolute temperature, and c is either the gas constant (if the activation of one molecule is considered) or the Boltzmann constant (if the activation of one atom, or molecule, is concerned).
Ar temperature In Fe–Fe3C alloys, a critical point observed on cooling and denoted by Ar1, Ar3 or Arcm, for A1, A3, or Acm, respectively. See undercooling.
artifact Feature caused by preparation or manipulation of a sample or, sometimes, by investigation conditions.
artificial aging Aging treatment at temperatures higher than ambient.
asterism Radial elongation of reflection spots in Laue diffraction patterns owing to residual stresses or substructures in a single crystal.
astigmatism Optical aberration revealing itself in a distortion of the cylindrical symmetry of an image.
asymmetric boundary Tilt grain boundary whose plane divides the angle between identical planes in the lattices of the adjacent grains into two unequal parts.
athermal transformation Phase transition developing without any thermal activation (thus, the transformation is diffusionless). The volume fraction of the transformation products depends mostly on temperature (or, more precisely, on supercooling). At a fixed temperature in the transformation range, after some period of a rapid increase, the volume fraction changes little, if at all. See shear-type transformation and martensitic transformation.
atomic force microscope (AFM) Device for studying the surface atomic structure of solids. AFM is similar in design to STM, but measures the force between the sharp microscope tip and surface atoms.
atomic mass Atomic mass, in units, equal to 1/12 mass of 12C atom.
atomic packing factor Volume fraction of a unit cell occupied by atoms presented by rigid spheres of equal radii. The largest atomic packing factor is 0.74 in FCC and HCP lattices; it is a little smaller (0.68) in BCC lattice, and very low (0.34) in the diamond lattice. Atomic packing factor is also known as packing factor.
at% Atomic percentage; it is used in cases in which the components are chemical elements. A weight percentage of a component A, WA, in a binary system A–B can be calculated from its atomic percentage, AA, by the formula:
WA = 100/[1 + (100 – AA)MB/(AAMA)]
where MA and MB are the atomic masses of A and B, respectively. In cases in which the components are compounds, mol% is used instead of at%.

atomic radius Conventional value not connected with an atomic size, but relating to a crystal lattice, i.e., the interatomic spacing is assumed equal to the sum of atomic radii. This is the reason why atomic radius depends on the bond type (i.e., metallic, ionic, or covalent), as well as on the coordination number in the crystal lattice considered. See metallic, ionic, and covalent radii.
atomic scattering factor Coefficient characterizing the intensity of the elasti-cally scattered radiation. It increases with the atomic number and decreases with (sin Q)/X, where 9 is the glancing angle and X is the wavelength. The atomic scattering factor for electrons is ~105 times greater than for x-rays, which enables the application of electron diffraction for studying relatively thin objects, commonly of thickness smaller than 01 |im. Atomic scattering factor is taken into account in x-ray structure analysis.
atomic size See atomic radius.
atomic structure In materials science, a description of an atomic arrangement in phases, e.g., amorphous, or in lattice defects.
atomic volume Vol ume of unit cell per atom.
atomizing Procedure for obtaining small solid droplets from melt, the droplets being ultra-fine grained because the cooling rate during their solidification is ~103 K/s. They are used for producing massive articles by consolidating and sintering.
atom probe field ion microscopy (APFIM) Technique for mass-spectrometric identification of single atoms removed from the sample tip in FIM by means of pulse field evaporation. Besides the studies of the surface atomic structure, APFIM is used for analyzing the nucleation and growth of precipitates, ordering phenomena (see order-disorder transformation and short-range ordering), and segregation at crystal defects.
Auger electron Secondary electron emitted by an atom whose electron vacancy at an inner shell has been created by a high-energy primary electron. An electron from a higher energy shell subsequently fills the electron vacancy, whereas another electron, referred to as the Auger electron, is emitted from the other shell. The energy spectrum of Auger electrons is a characteristic of the atom and can be used for chemical analysis (see Auger-electron spectroscopy).
Auger-electron spectroscopy (AES) Technique for chemical analysis utilizing the energy spectrum of Auger-electrons. Since Auger-electrons are of low-energy, AES can analyze very thin surface layers only (~1 nm in depth), with the lateral resolution 20 to 50 nm. AES can also yield a depth profile of chemical composition using ion etching for the layer-by-layer removal of the material studied.
ausforming Thermo-mechanical treatment comprising two main stages: warm deformation of a steel article at temperatures of bainitic range for the time period smaller than the incubation period of bainitic transformation; and quenching of the article, which results in the martensite or bainite formation from the deformed austenite. An increased dislocation density

in the austenite (after the first stage) is inherited by the martensite or bainitic ferrite (after the second stage), which increases the article ’s hardness. Ausforming is also referred to as low-temperature thermo-mechan-ical treatment.
austempering Heat treatment comprising austenitization of a steel article, cooling it to a bainitic range at a rate higher than the critical cooling rate and holding at a fixed temperature until the completion of bainitic transformation.
austenite Solid solution of alloying elements and/or carbon in γ-Fe. It is named after British metallurgist W. C. Roberts-Austen.
austenite finish temperature (Af) Temperature at which the transformation of martensite into austenite completes upon heating. The same designation is also applied to nonferrous alloys in which martensite transforms into some parent phase.
austenite stabilization Decrease, in comparison to a continuous cooling, in the amount of martensite occurring from austenite when cooling is interrupted at a temperature between Ms and Mf. This can be explained by the relaxation of stresses induced in the austenite by martensite crystals occurring before the interruption. The relaxation, in turn, leads to the dislocation rearrangement and their interaction with martensite/austenite interfaces, which makes the interfaces immobile.
austenite-stabilizer Alloying element expanding the γ-phase field in the corresponding phase diagram, which manifests itself in a decrease of the A3 temperature and an increase of the A4 temperature in binary alloys Fe–M as well as in a decrease of A1 temperature in ternary alloys Fe–C–M (M is an alloying element). The solubility of austenite-stabilizers in ferrite is much lower than in austenite. Under the influence of austenite-stabilizers, austenite can become thermodynamically stable down to room temperature. See, e.g., austenitic steels.
austenite start temperature (As) Temperature at which the transformation of martensite into austenite starts upon heating. The same designation is also applied to nonferrous alloys in which martensite transforms into some parent phase.
austenitic-ferritic steel Alloy steel whose structure after normalizing consists of austenite and ferrite.
austenitic-martensitic steel Alloy steel whose structure after normalizing consists of austenite and martensite.
austenitic range Temperature range wherein a purely austenitic structure can be obtained in steels upon heating.
austenitic steel Alloy steel whose structure after normalizing consists predominately of austenite. This is a result of an increase in the thermodynamic stability of austenite by alloying elements. If austenite is thermodynami-cally unstable, it can transform into martensite (see, e.g., maraging steel and transformation-induced plasticity).
austenitization Holding stage of a heat treatment resulting in the formation of a completely austenitic structure.

autoelectronic emission See field emission.
autoradiography Technique for studying chemical microinhomogeneity by reg -istering the radiation of radioactive elements (tracers) contained in the specimen on a high-resolution screen (film), displaying the disposition of the tracers in the surface layer.
Avogadro number Amount of atoms, ions, or molecules in a mole of any substance; NA= 6.022·1023 mol-1.
Avrami equation Description of transformation kinetics, assuming that new phase nuclei occur at predetermined sites only. As a result of this assumption, the nucleation rate decreases with time. In this case, the kinetic equation is:
V/ V0 = 1- exp(– kt n)
where V and V0 are the transformed and the initial volume fractions, respectively, k is a kinetic constant, t is the transformation time, and 3 ð n ð 4 (in three-dimensional cases) or 2 ð n ð 3 (in two-dimensional cases). If the nucleation rate is constant, the Avrami equation is identical to the Johnson–Mehl–Kolmogorov equation. In cases in which all the nucleation sites are exhausted at an early stage:
V/V0 = 1 - exp[-(4^N0/3)G 3 t 3 ]
where N0 is the initial number of the nucleation sites and G is the linear growth rate.
axial angle In a unit cell, an angle between a pair of its axes. See lattice parameters and unit cell (Figure U.2).
axial ratio In hexagonal crystal systems, the ratio of lattice constants c and a.

B
p-Al2O3 Impure alumina whose main impurity is Na2O.
p eutectoid Ti system Name of a Ti-X alloy system in which the ^-stabilizer X has a limited solubility in fi-Ti, and a eutectoid reaction P <-> a + y takes place (y is an intermediate phase or a terminal solid solution).
p-Fe Obsolete designation of the paramagnetic a-Fe existing at temperatures between 768 and 910°C at atmospheric pressure (i.e., between A2 and A3). Correspondingly, a solid solution in P-Fe was named P-ferrite.
p isomorphous Ti system Name of a Ti-X alloy system in which the alloying element X is the ^-stabilizer and there is no eutectoid reaction in the corresponding phase diagram.
pm phase [in Ti alloys] See metastable §-phase.
p-phase [in Ti alloys] Solid solution of alloying elements in P-Ti.
p-stabilizer Alloying element expanding the P-phase field in phase diagrams of Ti alloys and thereby lowering p/(a + P) transus.
p-Ti High-temperature allotropic form of titanium having BCC crystal structure and existing above 882°C up to the melting point at atmospheric pressure.
p Ti alloy Alloy with ^-stabilizers wherein P-phase is the only phase constituent after air-cooling from temperatures above the p/(a + P) transus. Alloys with a small (~5 vol%) amount of a-phase are related to the same group and termed near-P alloys. If the P —> a transition does not evolve on air-cooling, these alloys are named metastable P alloys.
background In x-ray structure analysis and texture analysis, an intensity of scattered x-ray radiation between diffraction lines caused mainly by: x-ray fluorescent radiation emitted by the specimen, diffraction of the white radiation on the polycrystalline specimen, Compton scattering, and diffuse scattering.
back-reflection Laue method Technique wherein an x-ray source and a flat film (screen) registering an x-ray diffraction pattern are placed on the same side of the sample.
backscattered electron Electron elastically scattered in the direction that is opposite to the direction of the primary beam. The yield of backscattered electrons increases with the atomic number of the substance studied. Backscattered electrons are used in SEM for gaining data on the topography, microstructure, and chemistry of the specimen surface, as well as for crystallographic studies (see electron channeling).

bainite Microconstituent in steels occurring on transformation of undercooled austenite in a bainitic range. Bainite consists of ferrite and cementite (or ε-carbide). It is named after American scientist E. C. Bain. See bainitic transformation, upper bainite, and lower bainite.
bainite start temperature (Bs) In alloy steels, temperature of the start of bai-nitic transformation on cooling from an austenitic range.
bainitic range Temperature range wherein bainite can be obtained upon cooling from an austenitic range. The upper limit of bainitic range is the Bs temperature in alloy steels and the lower limit of pearlitic range in plain carbon steels. The lower limit of the bainitic range is the Ms temperature (see Figure B.1).
C Pearlite
( Bainite Ms N^
Log time
FIGURE B.1 TTT diagram for eutectoid alloy steel (scheme). Temperature range Ae1–Bs is referred to as pearlitic, Bs–Ms as bainitic, and Ms–Mf as martensitic (temperature Mf is not shown).
bainitic transformation In steels, phase transformation of undercooled austen-ite at temperatures of bainitic range. In this range, the atoms of both iron and substitutional alloying elements cannot migrate by diffusion, whereas the carbon atoms can. Bainitic transformation (BT) evolves as follows. Carbon diffusion inside austenite leads to its chemical inhomogeneity, i.e., in some areas, the carbon content becomes reduced and in the others, increased. Since the Ms increases with a reduction of the carbon concentration in austenite, martensitic transformation evolves in the low-carbon areas. An occurring metastable low-carbon martensite decomposes into ferrite because of the elimination of its carbon content through the carbide precipitation. If this proceeds into the upper part of bainitic range, diffusion paths of carbon atoms can be long enough, and the carbides occur only at the boundaries of the ferrite crystallites (see upper bainite). If the temperature is low, the diffusion paths are short, and the carbides form inside the ferrite grains (see lower bainite). In the high-carbon areas, the austenite transforms into a ferrite-cementite mixture in the upper part of bainitic range. In the lower part of the range, carbide precipitation in these areas leads to a further local reduction of the carbon content in the austenite and

to the transformation chain described. Sometimes, a certain part of the austenite remains untransformed (see retained austenite). Thus, BT includes a diffusion-controlled carbon partitioning inside austenite, a nondiffusional phase transition of austenite into martensite, and a diffusion-controlled precipitation of carbides from the martensite and austenite. The BT kinetics are governed by the slowest process, i.e., by the carbon diffusion, and are the same as in the other diffusional transformations. At the same time, BT is similar to martensitic transformation in the sense that it ceases continuously at a constant temperature below Bs, and a certain amount of austenite remains untransformed. Alloying elements affect BT by reducing the carbon diffusivity and changing the elastic modulus of austenite, which retards the transformation and lowers the Bs temperature.
bainitic steel Alloy steel whose microstructure after normalizing consists predominately of bainite.
bamboo structure Microstructure of thin wires formed by a row of grains whose diameter is equal to the wire diameter.
banded structure Microstructure of an article fabricated from hypoeutectoid carbon steel, wherein pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite form alternating bands parallel to the direction of the preceding hot deformation. Banded structure has its origin in the coring in a steel ingot. For instance, in silicon steels, proeutectoid ferrite occurs in the areas of the hot-deformed and dynamically recrystallized austenite where there is an increased silicon concentration, i.e., on the periphery of the prior dendrite arms. Banded structure leads to high anisotropy of the mechanical properties of steel articles.
band gap See band structure.
band structure Spectrum of available energy states for electrons in crystals. The spectrum is composed of almost-continuous bands of permitted energy states separated by the gaps of forbidden energy (these are called band gaps). The bond type and crystal structure determine the spectrum. The electrons of the upper-atom shell fill a valence band. The band of higher permitted energies, next to the valence band, is known as a conduction band; it can be completely or partially empty. Electron conductivity is only possible if valence electrons can be activated to the energy level corresponding to the conduction band. In metals, the valence and conduction bands lie close to each other or superimpose. This explains the high conductivity of metals in which there are always available energy states in the conduction band. In intrinsic semiconductors and insulators, the valence band is filled completely and the conduction band is empty, but the latter is separated from the former by a band gap. Thus, the electron conductivity in these materials is only possible if valence electrons of the highest energy can acquire the activation energy necessary to overcome the gap. In intrinsic semiconductors, this takes place under the influence of thermal, electrical, magnetic, or light excitation, because the band gap in these materials is relatively small. In intrinsic insulators, the band gap is large, so there is no electron conductivity in these materials. Certain impurities, known as donors and acceptors, introduce permitted energy levels into the band gap

close to its borders, which reduces the activation energy necessary for electrons to reach the conduction band and significantly increases the number of charge carriers. Under the influence of some impurities, both covalent and ionic crystals can become semiconductors
basal plane In crystallography, {0001} plane in hexagonal structure. See Miller-Bravais indices.
basal slip Slip over a basal plane along (1120) direction; it is commonly observed in HCP alloys with an axial ratio c/a > 1.633.
base In materials science, a component used as a basis for alloying.
base-centered lattice Orthorhombic or monoclinic Bravais lattices in which, along with the lattice points at the vertices of the corresponding unit cell, there are additional points at the centers of two opposite faces. It is also referred to as based lattice.
based lattice See base-centered lattice.
Bauschinger effect In the specimen strained initially in one direction and then in the reverse direction, a decrease of the yield stress observed on the second loading. Microscopic residual stresses induced upon the first loading cause this effect due to inhomogeneity of plastic flow.
bend contour See extinction contour.
bicrystal Solid body consisting of only two crystallites of the same or different phases. The latter case is usual in semiconductor heterojunctions wherein bicrystal is formed by a heteroepitaxial single-crystalline film on a single-crystalline substrate or by two single-crystalline films. If bicrystal consists of crystallites of the same phase, they are disoriented.
bimetallic Consisting of two brazed or welded metallic strips of different composition and properties. For instance, thermobimetals are produced from strips with different coefficients of thermal expansion.
bimodal Description of a curve with two distinct maxima.
binodal Dome-shaped surface or a curve in a ternary phase diagram and a binary diagram, respectively, bordering a miscibility gap (see Figures B.2 and B.3).
binary Consisting of two components.
black-heart malleable [cast] iron Malleable iron with a pearlitic matrix.
Bloch wall Domain wall characteristic of massive ferromagnetics or ferrimag-netics. Inside the wall, the magnetization vector rotates around an axis perpendicular to the wall plane, going from one domain to the other. In thin films, such a wall structure is thermodynamically unfavorable (see Néel wall). The thickness of a 180° Bloch wall is proportional to (A/K)1/2, where A is the energy of exchange interaction and K is the constant of magnetic crystalline anisotropy; e.g., Bloch-wall thickness equals ~50 nm in a-Fe and ~3 nm in an intermediate phase Fe14Nd2B.
blocky martensite See lath martensite.
body-centered cubic (BCC) structure Crystal structure whose coordination number equals 8; atomic packing factor is 0.68; the close-packed planes and the close-packed directions are {110} and (111), respectively (see Figure B.4); the radius of a tetrahedral void in the structure is 0.290R; and that of an octahedral void is 0.153R, where R is the atomic radius.




body-centered lattice Cubic, tetragonal, or orthorhombic Bravais lattices in which, along with the lattice points at the vertices of the corresponding unit cell, there is one additional point at the cell’s center.
Boltzmann constant Quantity k = R/NA, where R is the gas constant and NA is the Avogadro number: k = 1.381-10-23 J/K or 8.6210–5 eV/K.
bond energy Energy necessary to break interatomic bonds and separate the atoms. Bond energy increases in the order: van der Waals —> metallic —> ionic or covalent bond.
Bordoni peak/relaxation Internal friction peak observed in cold-worked FCC metals due to the generation and lateral motion of double kinks. The measurements of Bordoni peak are used for determining the kink energy.
Borrmann effect See anomalous x-ray transmission.
Bragg angle Glancing angle appearing in the Bragg law.
Bragg [diffraction] condition See Bragg’s law.
Bragg reflection X-ray reflection corresponding to Bragg’s law.
Bragg’s law Condition for x-ray (or electron) diffraction on parallel lattice planes spaced at a distance dhkl, where h, k, and l are the Miller indices of the planes:
nk = 2 dhkl sin 9
where X is the wavelength, 9 is the angle between the primary beam and the corresponding planes (the glancing angle or Bragg angle), and n is an order of reflection, i.e., an integral value consistent with the condition nX/2dhkl < 1. It is assumed that the primary beam is strictly monochromatic and parallel, and that the crystal studied has a perfect lattice. The angle 9 does not correspond to the angle of incidence, $, considered in optics:
9 = Jt/2 - $
This explains why 9 is termed glancing angle.
brass Cu alloy where zinc is the main alloying element.
Bravais lattice One of 14 possible crystal lattices: cubic (primitive, body-centered, and face-centered); tetragonal (primitive and body-centered); orthorhombic (primitive, body-centered, base-centered, and face-centered); primitive rhombohedral or trigonal; primitive hexagonal; mono-clinic (primitive and base-centered); and primitive triclinic. The names of crystal systems are italicized.
bremsstrahlung See white radiation.
bright-field illumination In optical microscopy, such illumination that flat horizontal features of an opaque sample appear bright, whereas all the inclined features appear dark; e.g., in single-phase materials, grains are bright and grain boundaries dark. This is due to the fact that the horizontal features reflect the incident light into an objective, whereas the inclined features do not.

bright-field image TEM image produced by a directly transmitted electron
beam. Bright features in the image correspond to areas with an undistorted
lattice, provided the image results from diffraction contrast. bronze Cu-based alloy in which zinc is a minor alloying element. Bronzes are
denoted by the name of the main alloying element as, e.g., aluminum
bronze, silicon bronze, lead bronze, etc. Bs/Def orientation One of the main texture components, {011}(211), observed
in cold-rolled FCC metallic materials of low stacking-fault energy as well
as in the cold-rolled copper. Bs/Rex orientation Recrystallization texture component, {236}(385), observed
in cold-rolled FCC metallic materials of low stacking-fault energy. bulk diffusion Mass transport through the grain interiors in a poly crystalline
material. It is also termed lattice diffusion or volume diffusion. bulk modulus Elastic modulus at hydrostatic pressure. In non-textured polycrys-
tals, it is isotropic and is usually denoted by K. Its magnitude relates to
Young’s modulus, E, as follows:
K = E /3(1 - 2v)
where V is Poisson ’s ratio. See Hooke ’s law.
Burger orientation relationship Orientation relationship between an HCP phase, a, and a BCC phase, P: {0001 }a ||{110}p, (1120 )a ||(11 1)p.
Burgers circuit Closed circuit in a perfect crystal lattice; it helps determine the type of a linear defect in an imperfect crystal with the same lattice. If a circuit, identical to that in the perfect crystal, is drawn around a linear defect and turns to be opened, the defect is a dislocation; if it is closed, it is a disclination. The circuit is drawn counterclockwise around the defect. Thus, the defect sense should be chosen first.
Burgers vector Vector, b, invariant for a given dislocation line and characterizing the magnitude of lattice distortions associated with it (see dislocation energy and dislocation stress field). The sense of the Burgers vector is defined as follows: the end of the vector should be taken at the end of the Burgers circuit, and its head at the start point of the circuit. Burgers vector of a perfect dislocation is the translation vector in the crystal structure concerned. For example, the Burgers vector of perfect dislocations in BCC structure is 1/2 (111), i.e., it lies along(111) direction and its length equals half the body diagonal, i.e., b = 1/2 aj3 (a is the lattice constant). Burgers vector can be determined experimentally using TEM.

c
χ-carbide In high-carbon steels, a transient phase of the composition Fe5C2 with
monoclinic lattice. It occurs upon tempering of as-quenched martensite.
CaF2 structure Crystal structure wherein Ca2+ ions form an FCC sublattice and
i F1– ons, occupying half the tetrahedral sites of the first one, form the
second sublattice (see Figure C.1). CaF 2 is called fluorite.

FIGURE C.1 Unit cell of CaF2 crystal structure. Solid and open spheres show F1– and Ca2+ ions, respectively.
calorimetry Technique for studying phase transitions by measuring thermal effects, i.e., taking off or releasing the heat in the course of the transitions. See, e.g., differential scanning calorimetry.
capillary driving force Driving force for migration of grain or phase boundaries under the influence of the boundary curvature (see Gibbs–Thomson equation); this driving force is directed to the center of the curvature. In a three-dimensional, single-phase structure, it is:
Ag = Ygb(P1 + P2)
where ygb is the grain-boundary energy, and P1 and p2 are the principal radii of the boundary curvature. Capillary driving force promotes normal and abnormal grain growth, as well as shrinkage of porous compacts in the course of sintering. carbide In binary alloys, an intermediate phase containing carbon. In alloys with more than two components, metallic components can dissolve in binary carbides, forming complex carbides.

carbide-former Alloying element able to form special carbides. In steels, it is always a transition metal situated in the groups of the Periodic Table of Elements to the left of iron.
carbide network In hypereutectoid steels, a continuous network of proeutectoid carbides precipitating upon slow cooling from austenite and arranging on its grain boundaries. Grain boundaries serve as preferred nucleation sites because the dissolved carbon segregates them (see equilibrium segregation) and the nucleation of a new phase proceeds easier at the boundaries rather than inside the grains (see heterogeneous nucleation).
carbide segregation An increased amount of eutectic and proeutectoid carbides in a certain area of an article resulting from macrosegregation.
carbide stringers Rows of coarse carbides along the direction of the preceding hot deformation of an article. They are observed in ledeburitic steels, in which small eutectic colonies containing a significant carbide fraction, after solidification, are arranged between primary austenite grains. In the course of the subsequent hot deformation, these grains elongate in the deformation direction, which is accompanied by the stretching of the colonies in the same direction. Carbides of the colonies are revealed as carbide stringers.
carbonitride Carbide in which carbon atoms are partially substituted by nitrogen atoms, or nitride in which nitrogen atoms are partially substituted by carbon atoms. See interstitial phase.
cast iron Iron-carbon alloy comprising 2.5-3.5 wt% C, ~1 wt% Mn, and 1-3 wt% Si, in which an eutectic reaction takes place during solidification.
casting Article obtained by pouring liquid metal into a hollow form, where it solidifies. Its macrostructure is similar to that of an ingot, however, usually without a columnar zone.
C-curve In a TTT diagram, a curve showing the development of diffusional phase transformations at different temperatures by depicting the time of the transformation start and, sometimes, the time of its finish (see Figure C.2). Long incubation periods at both low and high supercooling inside the corresponding transformation range are caused by a low nucleation rate, in the first case, and by a low growth rate in the second.
cell structure Substructure forming inside cold deformed grains at true strains y > 1 (i.e., when the stress-strain curve becomes parabolic; see strain hardening). The cells are almost free of dislocations and bordered by dislocation tangles (known as cell walls) whose thickness is ~0.1 of the cell diameter. The mean cell diameter (usually <1 |im) varies as Gb/x, where G is the shear modulus, b is the Burgers vector, and X is the shear stress. Inside a grain, the mean cell disorientation increases from ~1° at y = 1-2 to 5-10° at y = 5-8°.
cellular microsegregation Inhomogeneous distribution of solutes in melt-grown single crystals with cellular substructure.
cellular precipitation See discontinuous precipitation.
cellular substructure Substructure in melt-grown single crystals characterized by pencil-like cells extending along the growth direction. These cells are

C Pearlite
( Bainite Ms ^
Log time
FIGURE C.2 TTT diagram for eutectoid alloy steel (scheme). Only C-curves of the transformation start are shown.
delineated by areas with an increased solute concentration (known as cellular microsegregation), as well as by low-angle boundaries. Cellular substructure is observed in dilute solid solutions. Its occurrence is connected with constitutional undercooling of the melt next to the growth front. Cellular substructure is also referred to as lineage structure or striation structure.
cementite Intermediate phase of an approximate composition Fe3C. Although cementite is metastable, it nucleates more rapidly than stable graphite because: its nucleation requires a smaller redistribution of carbon atoms; its specific volume is ∼3 times smaller than that of graphite; and it can form a partially coherent interface with both austenite and ferrite, whereas the graphite/austenite and graphite/ferrite interfaces are always incoherent (see critical nucleus and heterogeneous nucleation).
characteristic x-rays X-rays of a unique wavelength (energy) characterizing the atoms in an x-ray source. Their wavelengths correspond to sharp-intensity maxima in a continuous wavelength spectrum. The shortest wavelengths (and thus, the highest energy) in the characteristic spectrum correspond to the lines of a K set, where the Kα1 line is the most intensive one.
chemical diffusion Mass transport in substitutional solid solutions and intermediate phases in which different atoms diffuse either in the opposite direc -tions or unidirectionally (see ambipolar diffusion); their diffusion rates are characterized by intrinsic diffusivities. Chemical diffusion is also referred to as interdiffusion.
chemical etching Treatment of polished metallographic samples by definite (usually dilute) chemical reagents for microstructure revealing. Etching results in the formation of a surface relief (i.e., surface roughening, grooves, or pits), making microstructural features visible. The surface roughening results from the dependence of the reaction rate on the orientation of the grain surface, whereas the grooves and etch pits occur owing to an increased reaction rate at the intersections of different crystal defects,

such as grain boundaries and interfaces, as well as dislocations, with the sample surface.
chemical inhomogeneity Composition difference in various parts of an article (macroscopic inhomogeneity) or of a grain (microscopic inhomogeneity).
chemical potential. Partial derivative of Gibbs free energy with respect to the atomic (or molar) concentration of one component at constant concentrations of the other components, constant temperature, and constant volume.
chemisorption. Adsorption of atoms from the environment accompanied by the formation of solid solutions or intermediate phases on the surface of the solid adsorbent. In the absence of diffusion, the layer is of monoatomic (monomolecular) thickness. Chemisorption can be preceded by the dissociation of chemical compounds present in the environment.
cholesteric crystal. Liquid crystal wherein the rod-shaped molecules densely fill the space and form chains arranged end-to-end, as in nematic crystals. However, each chain in cholesteric crystals is helical, whereas in nematic crystals, it is almost straight-lined. Cholesteric crystals are also called N* crystals.
chromatic aberration. Aberration in optical microscopes appearing due to the difference in the focal lengths for light of different wavelengths. It reveals itself in colored image details.
cleavage plane. Lattice plane on which cleavage occurs as, e.g., {100} in BCC, {0001} in HCP, and {111} in diamond structures. The facets of cleavage surface are commonly parallel to the cleavage plane.
climb. Displacement of a portion of an edge dislocation onto a parallel slip plane caused by the contraction (or extension) of its extra-plane, owing to vacancy (or self-interstitial) transport to the dislocation line.
close-packed direction/row. Straight line in a crystal lattice, along which rigid spheres of equal radii representing the atoms are in contact. These directions are: (110) in FCC structure, (111) in BCC, and (1120 ) in HCP.
close-packed plane. Lattice plane with the maximum lattice point density: {111} in FCC lattice, {110} in BCC, and {0001} in HCP. They are characterized by the maximum interplanar spacing.
closing domain. Magnetic domain preventing the appearance of magnetic poles at high-angle grain boundaries or at the free surface in the areas where the main domains with antiparallel magnetization vectors touch the inter -faces. Closing domains close the magnetic flux inside the corresponding grain, thereby reducing the magnetostatic energy (see domain structure).
coagulation. Sticking together of particles without their merging. Compare with coalescence.
coalescence. Merging of adjacent particles of the same phase, i.e., subgrains, grains, precipitates, pores, etc. In the case of crystalline particles, coalescence must be accompanied by the disappearance of their interface and the simultaneous rotation of at least one of the particles. With regard to precipitates and pores coalescence is sometimes used erroneously instead of coarsening.
coarse-grained [Material] characterized by a mean grain size greater than 50-100 |im.

coarsening Thermally activated process resulting in an increase of the mean size of matrix grains (grain coarsening or grain growth) or precipitates and pores (see Ostwald ripening). The driving force for coarsening is a decrease of the total interfacial energy per unit volume.
coarse pearlite Pearlite formed at the upper limit of pearlitic range, i.e., at ~700°C.
Coble creep Diffusional steady-state creep whose strain rate, e, is controlled by grain-boundary diffusion:
e = a(o/RT)bDgb/D
where o is the tensile stress, Dgb is the coefficient of grain-boundary self-diffusion, 8 is the thickness of general grain boundary, D is the mean grain diameter, R and T are the gas constant and the absolute temperature, respectively, and a is a coefficient, depending on the grain shape:
a = 2/(1 + A + A )
where A is the grain aspect ratio measured in the direction of the applied force.
coherency strain Elastic deformation owing to changes in lattice constants, e.g., in a diffusion zone. Coherency strains compensate the lattice misfit at coherent interfaces, e.g., around GP zones. Coherency strains are also known as accommodation strains.
coherency strain hardening Increment in flow stress due to dislocation bending in the field of coherency strains around coherent precipitates. It is proportional to f 1/2 ( f is the volume fraction of the precipitates) and dependent on the magnitude of coherency strains and on the precipitate size.
coherent interface Phase boundary wherein the atomic positions in adjoining planes of different crystal lattices coincide perfectly or almost

ency strains in one of the crystal lattices or both, the elastic strain energy being dependent upon the lattice misfit and the elastic moduli of the crystals. Owing to its atomic structure, coherent interface is characterized by the lowest energy among all the types of phase boundaries. It is usually oriented parallel to close-packed lattice planes.
coherent precipitate Second-phase particle with a coherent interface. The lattice of these precipitates is always specifically oriented relative to the lattice of the matrix phase (see orientation relationship). For the shape of coherent precipitates, see nucleus.
coherent scattering See elastic scattering.
coherent twin boundary Interface between the twin parts that coincides with the plane of the perfect joining of their lattices. Coherent twin boundary, being a special high-angle boundary with Σ = 3 (see CSL-boundary), is characterized by low energy and a mobility significantly lower than those of general grain boundaries. Under an optical microscope, coherent twin boundary looks like a thin, straight line.
coincidence site lattice (CSL) Geometric construction used for the description of the atomic structure of high-angle grain boundaries. CSL can be constructed as follows. Take two perfectly coincident crystal lattices, pass a rotation axis through one of the lattice sites, and rotate one lattice around the axis until some (but not all) of its sites coincide with some sites of the other lattice. These coincident sites form a sublattice common for both crystal lattices, which is called CSL. Disorientations corresponding to different CSL are characterized by Σ values equal to the ratio of the CSL unit cell volume to that of the crystal lattice. The same approach can be applied to low-angle boundaries; in this case, Σ = 1. See special and general grain boundaries.
cold deformation Procedure of plastic deformation well below the recrystalli-zation temperature.
cold worked Subjected to cold deformation.
colony Equiaxed complex formed by two interpenetrating single crystals of different phases. The crystals appear on the plane sections as alternate lamellae perpendicular to the colony interface, or, if the volume fraction of one of the phases in the colony is low, as rod-like branches. Colonies grow into the parent phase by coupled growth. Colonies can form because of an eutectoid (or eutectic) decomposition or discontinuous precipitation.
color center Lattice defect in optically transparent ionic crystals that leads to their coloring. Color centers can occur due to vacancy aggregates trapping electrons, which helps to retain the charge balance of the crystals (see, e.g., F-center, M-center, and R-center). Some aliovalent solute (impurity) atoms can also provide color centers due to disturbances in the band structure associated with the solutes.
color etching Techniques for revealing microstructure by producing colored films on the surface of different grains on polished metallographic samples. See, e.g., staining.

columnar crystal/grain Crystallite of a nearly cylindrical shape. See columnar structure and columnar zone.
columnar structure Microstructure formed by columnar grains as, e.g., after directional solidification or zone annealing; the grain aspect ratio in this case can be greater than 10. The columnar structure in thin films consists of grains traversing the film thickness; the grain aspect ratio in this case is —1. Columnar structure is sometimes observed in a diffusion zone where columnar grains grow parallel to the direction of diffusion flux.
columnar zone Typical feature of ingot macrostructure; it is formed by dendrites growing in nearly the same direction, tightly to each other. Owing to the anisotropy of dendritic growth (e.g., in metals with cubic crystal lattices, the dendrite arms grow along (001)), columnar zone is characterized by a fiber texture with a definite axis along the growth direction. Columnar zone is also referred to as transcrystallization zone.
compacted graphite See vermicular graphite.
compatibility diagram See equivalence diagram.
compensating eyepiece Ocular used in optical microscopes in combination with apochromatic objectives.
complex carbide In steels, carbide containing, along with iron, other metallic components, e.g., (Cr,Fe)23C6.
component In materials science, a substance, usually a chemical element or a compound of a constant composition, forming different phases in a system. Components can exist independently of the system.
composite Material designed of chemically different and insoluble constituents. Commonly, these constituents are macroscopic, but in some cases, they can be microscopic as, e.g., in ODS alloys and ZTA.
composition Number of elementary constituents: components in an alloy (phase), e.g., single-component, binary, ternary, multicomponent, etc., or phases in an alloy, e.g., single-phase (homogeneous), multiphase (het-erophase), etc. The same term also denotes the content of components. See also phase composition and concentration.
compromise texture Annealing texture whose formation can be explained by approximately equal mobility of the boundaries between the growing grains and different components of the matrix texture.
Compton scattering Inelastic x-ray scattering on free or weakly bounded elec -trons in the substance. This scattering mode contributes to the background in x-ray diffraction patterns.
concentration Relative content of a component in an alloy (phase) expressed in at%, mol%, or wt%. The same term can denote the relative number of point defects (see, e.g., vacancy).
condensed atmosphere See Cottrell atmosphere.
conduction band See band structure.
congruent [Phase transition, commonly melting] that evolves without any compositional alterations in a participating solid phase. In contrast, melting accompanied by decomposition of a solid phase, as, e.g., in peritectic reaction, is termed incongruent.

conjugate slip system Slip system becoming active after the resolved shear stress on a primary slip system decreases below critical value, due to a lattice rotation in the course of plastic deformation. See Schmid’s law.
conode See tie line.
constitution diagram See phase diagram.
constitutional undercooling/supercooling Undercooling of melt due to changes in its equilibrium solidification temperature, T0, caused by changes in the solute concentration next to the solid/liquid interface. If the actual melt temperature is lower than T0, the melt is constitutionally undercooled, which results in an instability of the planar shape of the interface. This instability leads to the evolution of cellular or dendritic structures, depending on the undercooling and the linear growth rate.
constraint Restriction of a process, e.g., of the cryst